argument

• the word "argument" comes from the root word "argue," derived from the Latin word arguere, which means to prove, show, or accuse.
• An argument consists of a series of propositions that claims the truth of something.
• Statements can be divided into two groups. One of these is the conclusion, which is the statement that bears the truth claim of assertion. The rest of the statement is called the premise, or the reason that supports or justifies the conclusion.
• Inductive reasoning is made when the evidence and facts provided to support the conclusion do not give assurance that the conclusion is true.
• All arguments that use inductive reasoning to draw out conclusions are called inductive arguments.
• Example of Inductive Reasoning:

  Premise 1: Anne is a dancer, and she can also sing

  Premise 2: Vanessa is a dancer, and she can also sing

  Premise 3: Martha is a dancer

  Conclusion: Therefore, Martha can probably sing.
• deductive reasoning has logical certitude because the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
• In this form of reasoning, when the premises are correct, then it must be impossible for the conclusion not to be correct.

  Deductive reasoning
• Arguments that use this form of reasoning are called deductive arguments.

  Example:

  Premise 1: Bananas are yellow fruits.

  Premise 2: Yellow fruits attract fruit flies

  Conclusion: Therefore, bananas attract fruit flies.
• This process of reasoning is a necessary act in an argument since one cannot argue anything if there is no conclusion derived from the premises

  Whenever one says that a certain claim can be inferred from the given statements, they ask for a conclusion derived from those premises.

  Inference
• A declarative sentences that assert something: a quality, effects, or a predicate.

  These statements possess a claim which could be true or false. It is composed of a subject and the claim or assertion about the subject, also known as the predicate.

  Example:

  Gianna is a math wizard.

  The king of France exists.

  Propositions
• Questions, wishes, imperatives, and interjections are not propositions because they contain no assertion or truth claim.

  There are times when propositions may contain more than one proposition within themselves. These propositions are called compound propositions.

  Propositions
• A compound proposition contains two propositions with itself, often connected by the word "and."

  Example:

  Kylie is tall, and Leslie is smart

  conjuctive preposition
• A compound proposition contains two statements asserted together as cause and effect.

  Example:

  If you water the plants, then they will grow.

  The former is the cause or the antecedent, while the latter is the result or the consequent. It is also called a hypothetical statement. Some would also be called these statements "if-then propositions."

  conditional preposition
• A compound proposition presents options or alternatives, where one of them must be true.

  Example:

  Either you eat the vegetables or drink the green smoothie.

  It asserts that at least one of the two statements is correct, although one of its components may also be false.

  Disjunctive preposition
• It refers to the propositions that support and justify the conclusion. The word "premise" is derived from the Latin words prae mittere, which means "to be sent on before."

  Premise
• Conclusion Indicators:

  • therefore wherefore
  • accordingly we may conclude
  • entails that hence
  • thus consequently
  • we may infer it must be that

  According to Aristotle, they are the results of necessity, so a conclusion should necessarily follow from the premises
• Premise Indicators:

  • since in that
  • as indicated may be inferred from
  • because seeing that
  • as for the reason that
  • for in as much as
  • given that owing to
• A preposition derived from the premises through the process of reasoning. It is the heart of the argument, the claim of the argument.

  conclusion
• The quality of an argument. An argument is said to be valid when an argument is said to have a good logical flow, with the premises supporting the conclusion in a such way that the argument appears to be self-evident and logically true.

  validity
• A quality of an argument. An argument is said to be sound if the argument is valid, and all its premises are true.

  Soundness
• However, there are also cases when an argument is valid, but components or premises are false.

  Example:

  All men are mortals.

  Socrates is a man.

  Therefore, Socrates is mortal
• Soundness example:

  All fishes are underwater.

  all creatures underwater can't survive without water.

  A fish can't survive without water.
• Simply defined as faulty reasoning. Came from the Latin word fallere or fallac ("deception"). They are the defects and tricks of thoughts used to make an illogical argument convincing.

  Fallacies
• A kind of fallacy only found in a deductive argument. An argument has a formal fallacy when it has a defect in its form.

  Formal Fallacy
• Due to errors and mistakes in the structure and form of the argument, the conclusion drawn becomes logically uncertain, hence making the argument invalid.

  Formal Fallacy
• A kind of fallacy found in irrelevant and deceptive arguments. An argument has an informal fallacy when it has a defect in its content and meaning.

  Informal Fallacy
• A syllogism is a kind of deductive argument that is composed of at least three propositions. One of these is the conclusion drawn from the two other propositions (or premises).
• A hypothetical syllogism is composed of hypothetical or conditional propositions and has two types: pure hypothetical syllogism and mixed hypothetical syllogism.
• This invalid argument is committed when one concludes with the affirmation of the antecedent based on the affirmation of the consequent.

  This invalid argument is committed when one concludes with a denial of the consequent based on a denial of the antecedent.

  Example:

  If a person is crying, then that person is sad. The person is sad. Therefore, the is crying.

  FALLACY OF AFFIRMING THE CONSEQUENT (CONVERSE ERROR)
• This invalid argument is committed when one concludes with a denial of the consequent based on a denial of the antecedent.

  Example:

  If a person is crying, then that person is sad. A certain person is not crying. Therefore, that person is not sad.

  FALLACY OF DENYING THE ANTECEDENT (INVERSE ERROR)
• Since a disjunctive proposition only claims that at least one of its disjuncts is true, then it may be possible that both proposition are true. Therefore, affirming any of its disjuncts does not lead to any definite conclusion.

  Example:

  Either a person loves eating or he loves shopping. A certain person loves eating. Therefore, that person does not love shopping.

  Invalid Disjunctive Syllogism
• 2 types of formal fallacy:

  Common Valid Argument and Common Invalid Argument
• This argument is exclusively composed of hypothetical or conditional propositions.

  In this type, the argument is not exclusively composed of conditional propositions.

  In this argument, a causal relation is concluded from the two other conditional propositions.

  Example:

  If I pass the exam, then I can study medicine.

  If I can study medicine, then I can be a doctor.

  Therefore, if I pass the exam, then I can be a doctor

  PURE HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
• In this type, the argument is not exclusively composed of conditional propositions.

  In this argument, a causal relation is concluded from the two other conditional propositions.

  One of the premises might be affirming or negating one of the component propositions of the conditional statements.

  This type of syllogism has two valid forms: modus ponens and modus tollens.

  MIXED HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
• a kind of valid argument that is composed of at least three propositions

  In this type of argument, a conclusion is drawn from the denial of the consequent. This argument contains the following propositions:

  • A conditional proposition (if-then statement).
  • A proposition denying the consequent.
  • A conclusion denying the antecedent.

  Example:

  If I pass the exam, then I can study medicine.

  I cannot study medicine.

  Therefore, I did not pass the exam.

  Modus tollens ("mode that denies")
• This type of syllogism is composed of the following:

  A disjunctive proposition.

  A negation of any of its disjunct.

  A conclusion affirming the other disjuncts.

  A disjunctive proposition does not particularly affirm any of its disjuncts and only asserts that one of its disjuncts must be true, it necessarily follows then that the negation of one of its disjuncts means that the other disjunct is true.

  Example:

  Either I passed the exam or I'm going to retake the course.

  I'm not going to retake the course.

  Therefore, I passed the exam.

  Disjunctive Syllogism
• Also known as "Appeal to Popularity."

  This fallacy is committed when something is aasumed to be true just because many people believe it to be true.

  Example:

  It is okay to skip classes since almost everyone does.

  ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM
• Also known as, "Appeal to Force."

  This fallacy is committed when something is aasumed to be true just because many people believe it to be true.

  Example:

  Consider voting for this candidate, keep in mind that when this person finds out that you did not vote for him, he will probably hurt you.

  ARGUMENTUM AD BACULUM
• This fallacy is committed when a person argues for another topic slightly related to the original issue to confuse the listener.

  Example:

  Younger teachers are better than old ones. There is a budget deficit this year and younger teachers ask for lower salaries.

  RED HERRING